Classifications of Government Expenditure

Classifications of Government Expenditure The welfare of the people of India highly depends on the expenditure of the Government of India (GOI). Government expenditure is a very important aspect of the governments budget presented by the finance minister every fiscal. Through it GOI tries to maximise the welfare of the people by appropriately allocating economic resources to various government activities. Government expenditure can be broadly classified into four categories: Functional Classification or Budget Classification: In April 1974, the GOI introduced a new accounting structure in order to serve the requirement of financial control and accountability. Under this structure, a five tier classification has been adopted sectoral, major head, minor head, subhead, and detailed heads of accounts. Sectoral classification has clubbed the government functions into three sectors, namely, General Services, Social and Community Services and Economic services. In the new structure, a major head is assigned to each function and minor head is assigned to each programme. Each minor head include activities or schemes or organizations as subheads. Economic Classification: Economic classification of the government expenditure signifies the way of the allocation of resources to various economic activities. It involves listing the government expenditure by significant economic categories, separating current expenditure from capital expenditure, spending for goods and services from transfers to individuals and institutions, inter-governmental loans from grants etc. This classification provides a record of governments influence in each sector of the economy. Cross Classification or Economic-cum-functional Classification: Cross classification provides the break-up of government expenditure both by economic and by functional heads. For example, expenditure on medical facilities, a functional head, is split as current expenditure, capital expenditure, transfers and loans. Accounting Classification: Accounting classification of the government expenditure can be presented under (i) Revenue and Capital (ii) Developmental and Non-Developmental and (iii) Plan and Non-Plan. Each classification of expenditure has an objective associated with it. For instance, Revenue and Capital expenditure indicates the creation of assets by government expenditure and unproductive expenditure. Further, the developmental and non-developmental classification differentiates the government classification as the expenditure on social and community services and economic service from that against general expenditure. Similarly, the Plan and Non-Plan expenditure represents the expenditure on planned schemes of government and non-plan expenditures. The above classification of the government expenditure serves one or more of the purposes of the government, such as, parliamentary control over expenditure, economic development, price stability etc. Analysis of Government Expenditure in India The chart given below shows the division of government expenditure in terms of capital and revenue expenditure for some selected years. The percentage share of revenue expenditure in government expenditure has increased over time due to increase in expenditure in society welfare. The growth story of the India can be said in terms of five year plans which give an account of government expenditure during the plans. The first five year plan (1951-56) laid emphasis on agriculture, including irrigation and power, wherein the government had spent 36% of its subject on these heads. The second five year plan (1956-61) marks the foray towards industrialization with an increased government spending in transport and communication sector with an contribution of 28.9% of its expenditure. The urge for industrialization continues even during the third five year pan (1961-66) with 24% and 20% public spending on Industry Minerals, and Transport and Communication respectively. Fourth to seventh five year plans have social services of education, health, welfare sharing a majority of the pie with 24% and 26% expenditure in fourth and fifth plan. The eight five year plan (1992-97) commenced the era of fiscal reform and liberalization. There were increased efforts to improve the economic growth and quality of life of the common man. There were high public spending on the sectors like energy (26.6%), Transportation and communication (20.8%) and Social and other services (19.6%). The Ninth five year plan (1997-2002) focussed on the development of infrastructure by allocating 72% of the funds to irrigation, energy, transport and communication and social service. The tenth five year had an objective of atleast 8% growth rate by providing a boast to power sector spending (26.56%) and increasing social Community services sector spending to 29.27%. COMPARISON OF INFLATION BASED ON CPI AND WPI Consumer Price Index (CPI), is defined as the weighted average change over time in the prices of a basket of the good and services consumed by a consumer. While, Wholesale Price Index is defined as the weighted average change over time in the price of a basket of wholesale goods. Inflation rate is calculated based on the CPI and WPI as the percentage in the respective indices over time, generally a year. The calculation of inflation rates based on CPI and WPI form 1994-95 to 2006-07 is given in the table provided below: CPI and WPI differ in terms of their weights assigned to their respective constituent basket goods and services. Food has been assigned a higher weight in CPI (46% in CPI-IW) as compared to a weight of only 27% in WPI. As a result, the CPI changes more with the change in the food process as compared to the WPI. Further, the fuel group has a much lower weight in CPI (7% on an average) relative to that in the WPI (14.2%). Consequently, the variations in international crude process affect the WPI more than CPI. Also, services are not included under WPI, but are included in the CPI to different extents. Hence, the CPIs are influenced by the service price inflation. Considering the data provided in the table above, it can be inferred that on an average CPI-IW inflation is higher than that of WPI inflation. Also, in terms of WPI inflation the period from 1994-95 to 1995-94 was of higher inflation, then the inflation decreases and increases again in 2000-01 and then decreases again. It can be seen that the inflation rate, both CPI inflation and WPI inflation, follows a cyclic pattern.

Essay example --

A 2006 Pew survey on the Internet use of American teenagers between the ages of twelve and seventeen showed that not only are ninety-three percent connecting to the Internet, but sixty-one percent of them are online at least once a day (Haugen and Musser 100). As society is becoming further dependent on technology for communication, cyberbullying is becoming increasingly prevalent among teens and young adults. Cyberbullying occurs when someone uses the Internet or digital communication to harass others; this includes texts, e-mail, social networking sites, and instant messaging (Parks 9). The problem of cyberbullying leads society ask how it can be stopped, which leads to the debate of whether or not cyberbullying laws are an appropriate solution. Implementing cyberbullying laws could decrease or even stop cyberbullying because the laws would allow for consequences, which multiple cyberbullies are avoiding by using the Internet to remain anonymous. Cyberbullying should be illegal be cause it is growing in popularity, worse than traditional bullying, and causing devastating effects to teens and young adults. Cyberbullying is only getting worse as technology becomes the primary source of communication. Peggy J. Parks addresses this popularity of cyberbullying in her book Cyberbullying. Assistant criminal justice professor and author Marie-Helen Maras states, â€Å"With cyberbullying, bullies no longer need to confront their victims face-to-face. Instead, young cyberbullies use communications technology to annoy, embarrass, humiliate, abuse, threaten, stalk, or harass other children or teenagers† (qtd. in Parks 8). Also, a survey of students between the ages of eleven and eighteen conducted by the Cyberbullying Research Center showed tha... ... harassment of cyberbullies. Its growing popularity, ability to humiliate teens instantly, and harmful effects are all reasons why cyberbullying laws are needed to stop cyberbullies everywhere. Cyberbullying laws are needed to stop the growth of cyberbullying, as well as the bullies who are taking advantage of technology to harass others. Victims of cyberbullying are affected psychologically and all too often suicidal. Stopping cyberbullying would decrease the number of cyberbullying-related suicides, therefore, saving the lives of victimized teens and young adults. As of November of 2011, anti-bullying laws that include electronic harassment have been enacted in thirty-five states. Cyberbullying affects the lives of teens and young adults everywhere causing psychological harm and even suicide; laws against cyberbullying could be the answer to ending this epidemic.â€Æ'

Psmp Unit 1 – Reading Report – Federalism

Purpose: To inform the reader by outliningthe dialogue that took place at the ASSA/IPAA Federalism Rountable in May, 2007. Wanna summarises discussions on the: -historical trajectory and present characteristics of Australian federalism; -perceived shortcomings and challenges surrounding ourcurrent system of government; -relevance of federalism both from an increasingly globalised national perspective and within a nation of small population and relative cultural homogeny; and -various suggestions from those present to bring aboutreform. 77) Argument/Findings The Paper articulates the collective findings of those present at the Roundtable. Wanna makes comment on some main themes that emanated e. g. whilst considerable faith was placed in a clearer demarcation of governmental roles and responsibilities to address federalism’s perceived current ‘malaise’, Wanna notes there was nothing put forward to firmly support this assumption and consequentlyquestions the true wor th of articulating and clarifying roles and responsibilities.The Paper highlightsthe Roundtable’s observationthat numerous federal nationshave tended towards centralisation in recent times, coupled with declines in regional and localised identity; it predicted a gravitation of national issues to the Commonwealth level and a shift of regional and service delivery issues towards State governments over the next 20 years.There was consensus that greater trust, ‘strategic pragmatism’ and improved intergovernmental relations were needed to reform federalism and provide enhanced policy outcomes for the Australian community. (149) Evidence The Paper provides a firsthand summary of discussion, findings and suggestions from a Roundtable of politicians, senior state and federal public servants, and academics, supported by background information papers from credible sources. (32) Observations The Paper is a record of a collective discussion, notan argumentative essay. The do es not, nor does it purport to be, a balanced view of federalism in a broader or historical sense. -Roundtables by their very nature are high level and do not allow for drilling down to the finer details of an issue; this is worth bearing in mind when considering the article as some of the context may have been overlooked in relation to the finer points made by participants. The Paperhighlights that federalism has by necessity proven to be a much more flexible and dynamic governance structure than waslikely envisaged at its inception;it could be argued that federalism’s seeming robustness and changeability is entirely appropriate to what is now a highly changeable local, national and globalised community, despite looking markedly different to what it may have first looked like at federation. -It is submitted that the need for greater levels of trust between levels of government to make federalism work is potentially made more challenging by the dynamic of our two-party system of government. 185) Other relevant or related readings 1. Keddie, J. N and R. F. I. Smith. 2009, ‘Leading from Below: How Sub-National Governments Influence Policy Agendas. ’Australian Journal of Public Administration, No. 68 Vol. 1, pp. 67-82. Rather than outlining a perceived malaise and decrease in the relevance of the States in our federal system, Keddie& Smith argue that States have a responsibility to ensure they remain integral tobroader policy and decision-making agendas. (45) 2. Hollander, R. And H. Patapan. 2007, ‘Pragmatic Federalism: Australian Federalism from Hawke to Howard. ’ Australian Journal of Public Administration, Vol. 6 No. 3 pp. 280-297 The Hollander & Patapan article provides broader historical analysis that seeks to explain fundamental aspects of our system of federalism and conclusions on why the trend of centralisation has occurred. (30) 3. Parkin, A. 2003, ‘The States, Federalism and Political Science: A Fifty-Year Apprais al. ’ Australian Journal of Public Administration, Vol. 62 No. 2, June, pp. 101-112 The Parkin Paper provides broader analysis of the state of federalism than both the Wanna and Hollander & Patapan articles, providing a fifty year appraisal of Australian governance from the States’ perspective. (32)

Writer compare

The writer is Pharisee. I do not get any background about the writer. 2. The writer want us to know not everyone is suitable for taking college. The writer hope us can embrace her opinion. 3. The topic is the title â€Å"Is college for everyone†. I think this is a very common, popular topic.We still no consistent conclusion on this topic. . People still believe college education is the key to happiness and success for everyone. 5. A point, â€Å"the US, approximately 50% of students who begin college never graduate. There exist students who are not yet ready for the academic and financial challenges of college. There exist students who do not have the desire for college or learning. Some students may be better suited for a different type of education, If any. â€Å". Uses logic. And another point, â€Å"There are jobs that do not require a college education. Some work can be learned on the job, or from a trade school.We need fork lift rivers, factory workers, sales clerks a nd cashiers. What would we do without tractor- trailer drivers, mail carriers and construction workers? † 6. The writers thesis is college is not for everyone. We can find from these two sentences† Refuse to accept the political correctness that says all of our citizens should receive a higher education. Embrace the reality that college is not for everyone. † 7. The writer talk student's purpose and financial challenges of college and let us think if it is wroth to send students to take college. I think the writer provides a clear, sober and well- written analysis of his opinion. . For example, according to â€Å"We need to start distinguishing between the right to an education, and the benefit of an education. College does not benefit everyone. Not everyone should attend college. ‘We can see college is kind of business right now. The writer want us to think it very carefully. This opinion.The writer compare people who has higher education and lower educatio n to prove his opinion,†higher education is not the key to happiness and success for every person. † 1 1 . I think college is not for everyone. Not everyone likes studying. Someone also can have great achievement without college education.College is kind of waste for them, like Bill Gates. I agree with writer's opinion. I think this is a bold opinion. Summary The writer talk about the academic and financial challenges of college to show us some students are not comfortable in taking college. And He talk about college is business right now. People need to think about the benefit of an education. The writer want us to know College does not benefit everyone and higher education is not the key to happiness and success for every person. People can have happiness without college education. All in all, the thesis is college is not for everyone.

Life Span Development of Martin Luther King

LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT AND PERSONALITY Life Span Development and Personality Jocelyn N. McGuire CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY: I certify that the attached paper, which was produced for the class identified above, is my original work and has not previously been submitted by me or by anyone else for any class. I further declare that I have cited all sources from which I used language, ideas and information, whether quoted verbatim or paraphrased, and that any and all assistance of any kind, which I received while producing this paper, has been acknowledged in the References section. This paper includes no trademarked material, logos, or images from the Internet, which I do not have written permission to include. I further agree that my name typed on the line below is intended to have, and shall have the same validity as my handwritten signature. Student's signature (name typed here is equivalent to a signature): __Jocelyn N. McGuire Jocelyn N. McGuire Psy/300 February 08, 2010 Life Span Development and Personality of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. The Heredity The late Dr. Martin L. King life span development and personality began long before his birth. His father Martin Luther Sr. parents were poor sharecroppers’. Born in 1899 the 19th day of December in Stockbridge, Georgia. King witness actual cruelty of racism in the south. He was victimized and beaten by a white man in his early teenage years, also observe a white crowd hang a black man. Nevertheless his family continues to believe in nonviolenceduring a time when racial prejudice and racial injustice existence. When his mother was dying, King curse and hated white people, but his mother disagreed. â€Å"Hattred makes nottin but more hatred†¦ don’t do it. Jackson. C (nd). The influence of heredity path of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. can be track back to his great grand mother. She was a woman of peace, forgiveness, and believes in nonviolence. Life Span Development and Personality of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT AND PERSONALITY College studies consist of social psychology, classics in english, social institutions, social legislation, urban sociology, intercultural relations, introduction to philosophy, principles and methods of statistics, and seminar in sociology. King Jr. preaches his trail sermon at Ebenezer Baptist Church. In 1948 is then ordained and appointed assistant pastor at Ebenezer Baptist Church. Soon afterwards he would continue his education at the Crozer Theological Seminary. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. actions were influence by his father the Rev. Martin Luther King Sr. The Civil Rights leader,theologian, and educator Howard Thurman. Inspired by Mahatma Gandhi approach of non-violent actions. And Bayard Rustin who had studied Gandhi teachings counsel King to be dedicated to the principles of non-violence, Rustin also served as Kings advisor and mentor during the early activism. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. wrote â€Å"The ultimate measure of a man is not where he stands in moments of comfort and convenience, but where he stands at times of challenge and controversy. † Martin Luther King Jr. , Strength to Love, 1963 Psychological Development and Personality LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT AND PERSONALITY motions that are specific and tied to his environmental experiences. His beliefs were that all people are equal and be treated the same, he would process the information about himself and the world. LIFE SPAN DEVELOPMENT AND PERSONALITY References A African American Family Connection. Retrieved from http://www. aafricanamericanconnection. com Jackson, C. , Retrieved from http://www. findagrave. com Kowalski, R. M. , & Westen, D. (2005). Psychology: The Study of Mental Processes and Behavior Retrieved form University of Phoenix eBook Collection database

Find a newpaper article on wine industry and draw a link to a Assignment

Find a newpaper article on wine industry and draw a link to a macroecnomic concept - Assignment Example The key concept the article deals with is the demand and supply side of the wine industry. In order to gain an in depth understanding of these two mechanisms, aggregate demand and supply analysis needs to be made. This is necessary because the article highlights that other industries such as tourism and manufacturing have also suffered losses in the recent past. The aggregate demand (AD) is the total amount of goods and services that are demanded by the domestic householders, government, private businesses and the foreign consumers at a certain price level. The aggregate supply (AS) is the real output of an economy at a certain price level. AD and AS will change as price level changes and the mechanism that AD, AS varies at different price level in turn indicated the equilibrium real output and the equilibrium price level of an economy taking into account the equilibrium of product, monetary and labor (employment) markets. The article focuses on the macro-economic and micro-economic factors that are troubling the Australian wine industry. The article explores the reason for Australian company Foster’s parting away with its wine business. First, it highlights the many macro-economic factors such as global economic slowdown and strengthening of Australian currency to be responsible for weak sales figures. But the major argument of the article is that the domestic consumption of Australian wines has decreased. The reason is said to be ‘conservative consumerism’ emerging among the Australians. To highlight this new phenomenon the article mentions the rise in sales of cheaper French wine. The figure below depicts change in Pricing and Aggregate supply with shift in Aggregate demand. In the news article the writer supports the decision of Foster’s to dissociate itself with its wine business. As mentioned earlier, there are many reasons given for this step. The reasons

Q5 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

Q5 - Essay Example Poorly planned information systems also increase the costs of operation or else the customer requirements may not been met. This leads to dissatisfaction among clients and hence the organization can not maintain competitiveness in the market. Moreover, poor planning also leads to the existence of information systems in the organization that are not in use, not because they are spoiled but because the organization does not need them (Benaroch, 2002). Poor planning leads to failure especially when the organization does not have effective mechanisms for maintenance and supporting the information systems. Without the appropriate plans, the organization might not be capable of maintaining adequate support for consistent working with the system. It might result in to losses and misunderstanding among the MIS staff and the general organizational managers since blameworthiness is usually placed on those involved in the application of information systems rather than the planners. For example, the employees in charge of the control room are blamed for the poor performance of the information systems especially since they interact directly with the clients whose dissatisfaction is often attributed to incompetence among these staff. Such blames are mistaken and are all as a result of poor planning (Tipon et. Al 2001) The choice of the source of decision support systems in an organization is significant to their effectiveness in enhancing organizational performance. The pros of purchasing the DSS from vendors are many. First, the cost of purchasing the DSS is far much lower than in-house development especially due to the fact that the organization does not have to employ experts to develop the systems. The costs that could otherwise be incurred in the organization for developing the systems can be used for other purposes in the organization. On the other hand, outsourcing presents the organization with a wide range of DSS developers applying various technologies, which